前言：本科期间担任科研助理时，有幸从导师那里借来这本书通读，只记得自己当时在本子上做了一些笔记，但是想不起来具体记了什么😂前段时间再次从学院的讲座活动中听闻这本书，决定重温一遍，本篇为此书第一章的阅读笔记。

The element of style.
本书电子版链接：http://www.jlakes.org/ch/web/The-elements-of-style.pdf

Content

I Elementary Rules of Usage
- 1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's. (P13)
- 2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last. (P14)
- 3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas. (P14 - P17)
- 4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing an independent clause. (P17)
- 5. Do not join independent clauses with a comma. (P17 - P18)
- 6. Do not break sentences in two. (P19)
- 7. Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list of particulars, an appositive, an amplification, or an illustrative quotation. (P19 - P20)
- 8. Use a dash to set off an abrupt break or interruption and to announce a long appositive or summary. (P20 - P21)
- 9. The number of the subject determines the number of the verb. (P21 - P23)
- 10. Use the proper case of pronoun. (P23-P24)
- 11. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject. (P25)

I Elementary Rules of Usage

1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's. (P13)

即：通过在词尾添加 's 表示名词所有格单数形式

无论词尾的辅音是什么，都添加“‘s”，如 Charles's friend、Burns's poems, the witch's malice. 也有一些例外，如 Jesus', for conscience' sake, for righteousness' sake.
有些名词所有格用 of 短语更为合适，如 Moses' Laws → the laws of Moses, Isis' temple → the temple of Isis.
物主代词无需 ’ ，如 hers, its, theirs, yours, ours. 此外，不特指的物主代词需要“‘”号表示所有格，如 one's right、someone else's umbrella. 注：it's 和 its 不要混用，前者是 “it is”的缩写，后者是物主代词，意为“它的”。

2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last. (P14)

即：由单个连词连接的三个或以上的一组词语中，除最后一个外，其余的每个词后都需用逗号分开

示例：

red, white, and blue; gold, silver, or copper

He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its contents. （回想起高中英语老师教过的句型：A, B, C, and D.）

对于企业名称，最后一个逗号经常省略，具体情况视特定公司而定，如 Little, Brown and Company Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette.

3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas. (P14 - P17)

即：插入语应介于两个逗号之间

插入语本身很难界定，一般来说，比较影响句子流动性的短语或单词均可作为插入语。插入语要放在两个逗号中间，避免出现丢失逗号的情况：
- Marjories husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday. 应改为：
- ```
Marjories husband`, Colonel Nelson,` paid us a visit yesterday.
```
- My brother you will be pleased to hear, is now in perfect health. 应改为：
- ```
My brother`, you will be pleased to hear,` is now in perfect health.
```

在日期书写过程中，通常需要包含插入词，正确的写法应当是：

February to July, 1992

```
April 6, 1986
```
```
Wednesday, November 14, 1990        
```

一些惯常用法会省略逗号，如 6 April 1988，这种写法通过使用单词将两个数字隔开，一目了然。

直接称谓中的名字或称号也可作为插入语，示例：

If, Sir, you refuse, I cannot predict what will happen.

Well, Susan, this is a fine mess you are in.

缩略语、学术称号的缩写以及名称后面的称号应被当做插入语处理，示例：

Letters, packages, etc., should go here.

```
Horace Fulsome, Ph.D., presided.
```
```
Rachel Simonds, Attorney
```
```
The Reverend Harry Lang, S.J.
```

一些整体性短语（如电影名称）不需要加逗号分隔，如 Billy the Kid, The novelist Jane Austen, William the Conqueror, The poet Sappho.
Junior 的缩略语 “Jr.” 与名称连用时，该词前不需要添加逗号，如：James Wright Jr.

非限制性从句对地点或时间等具体信息进行补充说明时，通常作为插入语插入到需要介绍的先行词后，如：

The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and moreinterested.

In 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but recently been acquiredby France.

Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, is afew miles from Bridgewater.

在一个句子中，若存在短语或从句先于主句出现，则使用逗号对不同的句子元素进行分离。

Partly by hard fighting, partly by diplomatic skill, they enlarged their dominions to the east and rose to royal rank with the possession of Sicily.

PS：这里阐述一下两类定语从句的区别：
限制性定语从句：限制或定义先行词的范围，去掉连接词后不可拆分成两句话，因为会破坏句义的完整性。
非限制性定语从句：对先行词进行补充说明，去掉连接词后可以拆分成两句话，同时保证句义的完整性。

4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing an independent clause. (P17)

即：在独立从句的连词前添加逗号

在第二个句子的连词（如 for, or, nor, while）前要添加逗号。（高中英语老师教过的口诀：“一句一谓，两句一连。”）
如果当多个从句的主语一致并且仅出现一次，连词为 But 时，需要使用逗号隔开两个分句；当连词为 and 且句之间的关联紧密，可以省略逗号。示例：
- ```
I have heard the arguments, but am still unconvinced.                    
```
- ```
He has had several years' experience and is thoroughly competent.
```

5. Do not join independent clauses with a comma. (P17 - P18)

即：不要使用逗号连接两个独立的句子

如果需要将两个或多个语法正确的句子汇成一个组合句，恰当的标点符号应该是分号，示例：

Mary Shelley's works are entertaining; they are full of engaging ideas.

It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark.

如果把两个句子分开表述，这时恰当的符号就是句号，示例：

Mary Shelley's works are entertaining. They are full of engaging ideas.

It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark.

如果在两个句子间插入连词，此时在连词前应添加逗号，示例：

Mary Shelley's works are entertaining, for they are full of engaging ideas.

It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark.

如果第二个分句是由一个副词（如 accordingly, besides, then, therefore, thus ）而非连词引导，此时分号仍然是必须的，示例：
- ```
I had never been in the place before; besides, it was dark as a tomb.                                    
```

分号法则的一个例外情况：当分句 (1) 非常短且彼此形式相近，或 (2) 句子语调轻快或 (3) 偏于口语化时，使用逗号代替分号比较合适，示例：

Man proposes, God disposes.（谋事在人，成事在天。）

The gates swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was drawn up.

```
I hardly knew him, he was so changed.
```

Here today, gone tomorrow.

6. Do not break sentences in two. (P19)

即：不要将完整的句子一分为二。

该用逗号的地方不要错用句号，示例：

I met them on a Cunard liner many years ago. Coming home from Liverpool to New York.

She was an interesting talker. A woman who had traveled all over the worldand lived in half a dozen countries.

允许使用标点符号达到强调某单词或表达的目的，示例：

Again and again he called out. No reply.

PS：规则 3，4，5，6 都是标点符号使用的重要规则，必须熟练掌握，将其作为第二习性。

7. Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list of particulars, an appositive, an amplification, or an illustrative quotation. (P19 - P20)

即：在独立句后使用冒号来介绍细节列表、修饰语、放大或说明性引用。

一个冒号的作用是向读者表明：紧随其后的句子和前句有很强的相关性。**冒号比逗号有更大的影响力，比分号具备更小的分割性；且比破折号更加正式。**冒号通常跟着一个独立的句子，注意不要错用冒号将动词与宾语分开，也不要错用冒号将介词与其修饰对象分开。

示例：
- Your dedicated whittler requires: a knife, a piece of wood, and a back porch. 应改为：
- ```
Your dedicated whittler `requires three props:` a knife, a piece of wood, and aback porch.
```
- Understanding is that penetrating quality of knowledge that grows from: theory, practice, conviction, assertion, error, and humiliation. 应改为：
- ```
Understanding is that penetrating quality of knowledge that grows `from` theory, practice, conviction, assertion, error, and humiliation.
```

如果两个句子中，后者是对前者的解释或补充，则可使用冒号对两个句子进行连接，示例：

But even so, there was a directness and dispatch about animal burial: therewas no stopover in the undertaker's foul parlor, no wreath or spray.

一个冒号可能引入支持或有助于前一句的引文，示例：
- The squalor of the streets reminded her of a line from Oscar Wilde: “We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars.”
冒号还具有某些形式功能：跟随正式信件的称呼，在时间表示中分隔时分秒、将标题与副标题或《圣经》中的章与节分隔开，示例：
- ```
Dear Mr. Montague: 
```
- ```
departs at 10:48 P.M. 
```
- ```
Practical Calligraphy: An Introduction to Italic 
```
- ```
ScriptNehemiah 11:7 
```

8. Use a dash to set off an abrupt break or interruption and to announce a long appositive or summary. (P20 - P21)

即：破折号比逗号分离作用更强，没有冒号那么正式，比括号更加“松弛”。

示例：

His first thought on getting out of bed — if he had any thought at all — was to get back in again.

The rear axle began to make a noise — a grinding, chattering, teeth-gritting rasp.

The increasing reluctance of the sun to rise, the extra nip in the breeze, the patter of shed leaves dropping — all the evidences of fall drifting into winter were clearer each day.

考虑破折号的唯一使用情况是比破折号更加常见的标点符号词不达意，否则就要使用更加常见的标点符号，示例：
- Her father’s suspicions proved well-founded — it was not Edward she cared for — it was San Francisco. 应改为：
- ```
Her father's suspicions proved well-founded. It was not Edward she cared for, it was San Francisco.
```
- Violence — the kind you see on television — is not honestly violent — there lies its harm. 应改为：
- ```
Violence, the kind you see on television, is not honestly violent. There lies its harm.
```

9. The number of the subject determines the number of the verb. (P21 - P23)

即：主语的数量决定动词的数量。

在主语和动词之间介入的插入语名词不会影响动词的数量，示例：
- The bittersweet flavor of youth — its trials, its joys, its adventures, its challenges — are not soon forgotten. 应改为：
- ```
The bittersweet flavor of youth — its trials, its joys, its adventures, its challenges — `is` not soon forgotten.
```
一个常见的错误是，在 one of 引导的关系从句或类似的表达中使用动词的单数形式。
- One of the ablest scientists who has attacked this problem. 应改为：
- ```
One of the ablest scientists who `have` attacked this problem.	
```
- One of those people who is never ready on time. 应改为：
- ```
One of those people who `are` never ready on time.
```
当主语为 each, either, everyone, everybody, neither, nobody, someone 等词时，谓语动词要用单数形式，示例：
- ```
Everybody thinks he has a unique sense of humor.
```
- ```
Although both clocks strike cheerfully, neither keeps good time. 
```
当 None 作为主语且表示 “No one” 或 “Not one” 时，谓语动词要用单数形式，示例：
- None of us are perfect. 应改为：
- ```
None of us is perfect.
```
当 None 作为主语且表示一个以上事物或人时，谓语动词要用复数形式，示例：
- ```
None are so fallible as those who are sure they're right. 
```
使用 and 连接的两个或两个以上的名词组成的复合主语，谓语动词通常需要使用复数形式，示例：
- ```
The walrus and the carpenter were walking close at hand. -
```

有些复合主语通常被看作一个整体，还有些复合主语被 each 或 every 限定，这时谓语动词通常使用单数形式，示例：

```
The long and the short of it is ... 
```
```
Bread and butter was all she served. 
```

Give and take is essential to a happy household.

Every window, picture, and mirror was smashed.

使用 with, as well as, in addition to, except, together with, 或 no less than 等连接的复合主语，谓语动词的单复数形式由连接词前面的主语决定，示例：
- ```
His speech as well as his manner is objectionable. 
```

连接动词与主语的数量要保持一致，示例：

What is wanted is a few more pairs of hands.

The trouble with truth is its many varieties.

一些看似为复数的名词通常看作单数，谓语动词也使用单数，示例：
- ```
Politics is an art, not a science. 
```
- ```
The Republican Headquarters is on this side of the tracks.
```
特例：The general’s quarters are across the river.

PS：学习习语很有必要。通常来说，一本书的内容是单数的；罐子里的东西可以是单数的，也可以是复数的，这取决于罐子里的东西——果酱或弹珠。

10. Use the proper case of pronoun. (P23-P24)

即：使用合适的代词

人称代词以及代词“who”，作为主语或宾语时的形式有所不同（主格或宾格），示例：

Will Jane or he be hired, do you think?

```
The culprit, it turned out, was he. 
```

We heavy eaters would rather walk than ride.

```
Who knocks? 
```
```
Give this work to whoever looks idle. 
```

在上述最后的示例中，whoever 是 looks idle 的主语，而介词 to 的宾语是 whoever looks idle 整个从句。当 who 引导一个从句时，其形式由其在句子中发挥的作用来决定，示例：
Virgil Soames is the candidate whom we think will win. 应改为：

Virgil Soames is the candidate `who` we think will win. [We think he will win.]

Virgil Soames is the candidate who we hope to elect. 应改为：

Virgil Soames is the candidate `whom` we hope to elect. [We hope to elect him.]

在一个比较句中，如果代词是上文已经陈述过的动词的主语，则代词要用主格，示例：
- ```
Sandy writes better than I. (Than I write.)
```
一般来说，尽量不要省略动词。
I think Horace admires Jessica more than I. 应改为：

I think Horace admires Jessica more than `I do`.

Polly loves cake more than me. 应改为：

Polly loves cake more than `she loves me`.

一些正确使用宾语的情况如下：

The ranger offered Shirley and him some advice on campsites.

They came to meet the Baldwins and us.

Let's talk it over between us, then, you and me.

```
Whom should I ask? 
```

对于 A group of us taxpayers protested. 这句话，us 与 taxpayers 是并列关系，是介词 of 的宾语。这种写法虽然在语法上站得住脚，却不太合适。相较而言，"A group of us protested as taxpayers"更为合适。
使用简单的人称代词作为主语。
- Blake and myself stayed home. 应改为：
- ```
Blake and `I` stayed home.
```
- Howard and yourself brought the lunch, I thought. 应改为：
- ```
Howard and `you` brought the lunch, I thought.
```
名词所有格表示所有权，有两种形式：形容词修饰词（如 your hat）和所有格的名词形式（如 a hat of yours），示例：
- ```
The dog has buried one of your gloves and one of mine in the flower bed. 
```

动名词通常需要所有格，示例：

Mother objected to our driving on the icy roads.

现在分词作为动词，代词通常使用宾格。示例：
- ```
They heard him singing in the shower. 
```
动词分词与动名词之间的差异有时不是十分明显，注意分清每种形式所表达的意义，如下面两句话，第一句话询问的侧重点在于我是否能够问一个问题，而不是当前群体中的其他人；第二句话询问的侧重点在于我是否能够问一个问题 这个动作本身。
- ```
Do you mind me asking a question?
```
- ```
Do you mind my asking a question?
```

11. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject. (P25)

即：句首的分词插入短语应该描述句子主语的状态

示例：

Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children.（Walking 这个动作修饰句子主语 `he`）

He saw a woman, accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road.（Walking 这个动作修饰句中的 `woman`）

对于以连词或介词引导的分词作为插入短语，若并列名词，形容词和形容词短语在句子开头出现，则遵守同样的规则。
- On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him at the station. 应改为：
- ```
On arriving in Chicago, he was met at the station by his friends.
```
- A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him with the defense of the city. 应改为：
- ```
A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted with the defense of the city.
```
- Young and inexperienced, the task seemed easy to me. 应改为：
- ```
Young and inexperienced, I thought the task easy.
```
- Without a friend to counsel him, the temptation proved irresistible. 应改为：
- ```
Without a friend to counsel him, he found the temptation irresistible.
```
在书写中，若违背本规则，则句意就会显得十分荒唐，错误示范：
- Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very cheap.
- Wondering irresolutely what to do next, the clock struck twelve.